Chapter 8

The Continental Congress made a significant decision when it chose George Washington to lead the hastily assembled army besieging Boston, despite misgivings.

Washington's leadership was marked by his exceptional character, patience, courage, self-discipline, and sense of justice, which made him a trusted symbol and rallying point for the cause.

Although not a military genius and having lost more battles than won, his moral force and willingness to sacrifice for the cause made him a crucial figure.

His selection as commander-in-chief was partially political, aimed at addressing tensions between regions and establishing a trustworthy leader from Virginia to lead the New England army.

The early stages of the American Revolution were marked by a contradictory approach. While the colonists affirmed loyalty to the king and expressed a desire for reconciliation, they simultaneously raised armies and engaged in armed conflict against British soldiers.

This inconsistency lasted for about fourteen months, from April 1775 to July 1776, before the decision for independence was made.

The conflict escalated gradually, with notable victories for the Americans such as the capture of Ticonderoga and the Battle of Bunker Hill.

Despite attempts at reconciliation, King George III's formal proclamation of rebellion and the hiring of German troops known as Hessians by the British further strained relations and deepened the rift.

The colonists were especially shocked by the Hessian deal and viewed it as bringing in outsiders to a family dispute.

In fall of 1775, American forces attempted a two-pronged invasion of Canada, believing that the French population would join their cause against British rule.

Led by Generals Richard Montgomery and Benedict Arnold, this offensive move aimed to secure Canada as a fourteenth colony, although that would deny the colonists the claim of fighting a defensive war.

However, the attack on Quebec in late 1775 was repelled, with the colonists very close to success, the Canadians preferring British rule to Colonial rule.

The British evacuated Boston in March 1776 after facing continued resistance from the colonists, and rebel forces achieved victories against Loyalists in North Carolina and a British fleet in Charleston harbor.

Despite these battles, the colonists still denied a desire for full independence at this stage.

The reluctance to declare independence persisted due to deep-rooted loyalty to the British Empire, a sense of transatlantic identity, lack of strong colonial unity, and the perilous nature of open rebellion against the powerful British forces.

Despite growing inconsistencies and tensions, many Americans still saw themselves as part of a larger British community.

However, the shocking events of the burning of Falmouth and Norfolk, as well as the hiring of Hessian mercenaries, began to awaken an awareness of the need for change.

The publication of Thomas Paine's influential pamphlet, "Common Sense," in 1776 further accelerated this shift in sentiment.

Paine's powerful arguments against British rule, in favor of a republic and his questioning of the logic behind a small island governing a vast continent prompted many Americans to reconsider their stance and embrace the idea of independence.

Thomas Paine's "Common Sense" passionately advocated independence and a new republic where power would stem from the people, not a monarchy.

This resonated with colonists who had already experienced self-governance in town meetings and committees of correspondence.

While some embraced the idea of civic virtue for the common good, others, mostly socially elevated people, differed on whether a "natural aristocracy" should play a role. These fears of commoners running the government would not fade anytime soon.

On June 7, 1776, Richard Henry Lee's motion in the Philadelphia Congress marked the formal declaration of independence for the American colonies.

Thomas Jefferson, tasked with drafting the statement, crafted the eloquent Declaration of Independence, invoking universal natural rights and listing grievances against King George III.

Despite historical liberties taken, Jefferson's powerful words became a revolutionary beacon, inspiring movements worldwide.

The declaration cleared the way for foreign aid and united rebels who pledged their lives, fortunes, and honor to the cause.

The American Revolution was not a simple conflict between rebels and the British; it was a war within a war.

Loyalists, those loyal to the crown, were often called "Tories", while Patriots, those in favor of independence, were known as "Whigs."

As both sides vied for civilian support, the British struggled to win over the people, while the Patriot militias played a crucial role in shaping Revolutionary ideas.

Loyalists, comprising about 16% of the population, remained loyal to the king and included people of education, wealth, and those with ties to the crown, those who were satisfied with their current life and for whom regime change would be bad.

Patriots were found in high concentration in New England, where there was a tradition of self-government, and also among the young.

Before the Declaration of Independence in 1776, persecution of Loyalists was relatively mild, although some instances of brutality like tarring and feathering occurred.

After the Declaration of Independence, which firmly separated Loyalists from Patriots, harsher measures were taken.

While there was no wholesale reign of terror as seen in later revolutions, hundreds of Loyalists were imprisoned, a few were hanged, and those who supported George III were driven out or fled, amounting to about eighty thousand individuals.

Many Loyalists who stayed faced confiscation of their estates (which helped fund the war), while around fifty thousand Loyalist volunteers armed themselves for the British cause and served as spies or incited Indian involvement in the conflict.

After the evacuation of Boston in March 1776, the British shifted their focus to New York as a strategic base. A formidable British fleet and army arrived in New York in July 1776, led by General William Howe.

Facing overwhelming odds, General George Washington's American forces suffered defeats in the Battle of Long Island and were forced to retreat, first to Manhattan Island, then to New Jersey, across the Delaware River, and into Pennsylvania..

However, Howe's reluctance for winter campaigning and personal distractions gave Washington an opportunity. In a daring move, Washington famously crossed the icy Delaware River and achieved surprise victories at Trenton and Princeton in late December 1776, revitalizing the Patriot cause and showcasing his strategic skill.

In 1777, the British aimed to capture the Hudson River valley.

Their plans were disrupted by General Benedict Arnold's efforts on Lake Champlain and General Howe's diversion to attack Philadelphia instead of supporting General Burgoyne's advance as was initally planned.
(in Ben Franklin's words, "Howe had not captured Philadelphia, Philadlphia had captured Howe")

Despite initial defeats for the Americans, Burgoyne's slow progress and eventual surrender at Saratoga in October 1777 turned the tide of the war.

The victory in Saratoga boosted colonial morale, facilitated foreign aid, particularly from France, and played a crucial role in securing American independence.

Prior to Saratoga, French agents, looking for revenge against Britain, secretly supplied the Americans with crucial war materials, primarily gunpowder, aiding the colonists in their fight. They did so secretly for fear of retribution from Britain.

However, after the British humiliation at Saratoga, the British Parliament belatedly passed a measure that in effect offered the Americans home rule within the empire (which, other than independence, was all they wanted). Ben Franklin took this news to the French and played on their fears of British/Amerian reconciliation in order to get what he wanted -- a public Franco-American alliance.

The official alliance was formed in 1778, where both sides committed to fight until American independence was achieved.

Of course, most Americans disliked the French, who were blood enemies (the Americans still have English roots) and Roman Catholic, but to quote from the textbook - "when one’s house is on fire, one does not inquire too closely into the background of those who carry the water buckets".

The American Revolutionary War quickly (after Saratoga) escalated into a global conflict involving major powers.

France and Spain joined the fray against Britain in 1778, followed by Holland, leading to a widespread conflict across Europe, North America, South America, the Caribbean, and Asia.

France provided substantial aid to the rebels, including arms, money, equipment, troops (1/2 of all troops were French), and all of the naval support.

This new dynamic shifted British strategy, leading to the evacuation of Philadelphia and a focus on consolidating forces in New York City, where British forces were eventually hemmed in by General Washington.

In 1780, a French army led by Comte de Rochambeau arrived in Rhode Island. Initially, this caused suspicion among Americans, but their support eased tensions.

General Benedict Arnold's betrayal by plotting unsuccessfuly to surrender West Point to the British in 1780 (for an inflation-adjusted amount of $1.1 million) deeply shook American morale and trust.

The British turned their focus to the South, capturing Georgia and Charleston, South Carolina. This led to intense conflict between Patriots and Loyalists (who were numerous in the South).

However, American General Nathanael Greene's strategic approach in the southern campaign gradually wore down British forces and helped regain control over Georgia and South Carolina.

During the war, the American West experienced violence as Indian allies of Britain, spurred by agents known as "hair buyers," (British reward Indians for American Scalps) attacked to protect their land.

The Iroquois Confederacy was divided, with some tribes siding with the Americans and others with the British, led by Mohawk chief Joseph Brant.

George Rogers Clark led audacious attacks on British forts in the Illinois country, contributing to the cession of the region to the United States.

The American navy, though small, engaged in privateering operations that disrupted British shipping, inflicted economic strain, and bolstered American morale, playing a role in pressuring Britain towards ending the war.

The period of 1780-1781 marked a dark phase of the war, characterized by rampant inflation, government bankruptcy, and a sense of despair.

Mutinous sentiments spread within the army, and British general Cornwallis found himself trapped in Yorktown.

Unaware of temporary British naval weakness, Cornwallis awaited supplies and reinforcements.

In a coordinated effort, Admiral de Grasse's French sea fleet and General Washington's forces (from land) converged on Cornwallis in a double pronged attack.

After a swift march and naval blockade, Cornwallis surrendered in Yorktown in October 1781, a victory for both the French and the Americans that marked the end of the war.

After the victory at Yorktown, many Britons were growing weary of the war, and negotiations for peace began.

American negotiators, including Benjamin Franklin, John Adams, and John Jay, faced challenges due to conflicting interests of France, Spain, and USA. France, keen on weakening Britain, aimed for an independent but weak United States, hoping to limit its westward expansion.

John Jay, suspicious of French intentions, secretly made separate overtures to London despite instructions from a French-advised congress to involve the French in all negotations.

The Treaty of Paris of 1783 formally recognized American independence and granted the United States generous territorial boundaries, to the Mississippi on the west, to the Great Lakes on the north, and to Spanish Florida.

Americans had to make concessions regarding Loyalists and debts owed to British creditors, some of which weren't fully upheld.

Britain, led by the Whig party, made surprisingly liberal peace terms after the American victory at Yorktown because they sought to entice the United States away from its French alliance and avoid future conflict.

Despite the appearance of a separate peace, the terms were approved by the French Foreign Office, although the lone American approach raised concerns.

While the British suffered setbacks and the French faced financial troubles, America emerged as the ultimate beneficiary of the global conflict.

America secured its independence with valuable territorial gains and a legacy of freedom.