Chapter 10

In 1789, when the U.S. Constitution was established, the country was undergoing rapid population growth.

The 1790 census recorded nearly 4 million people, with cities like Philadelphia, New York, and Boston experiencing significant increases in population.

However, despite urbanization, the majority of Americans, around 90 percent, still lived in rural areas.

Westward expansion was evident, particularly in Kentucky, Tennessee, and Ohio, though the settlers there were often restless and influenced by foreign agents due to issues like the control of the Mississippi River by unfriendly Spanish authorities.

George Washington's presidency began in 1789 after a unanimous election by the Electoral College, making him the only president to achieve such unanimous support.

Washington, standing at 6 feet 2 inches, was an imposing figure with distinctive features marked by pockmarks from smallpox.

His journey to New York City, the temporary capital, was celebrated with grand receptions, including cannon salutes, bell ringing, and enthusiastic crowds.

On April 30, 1789, he took the oath of office, becoming the first President of the United States.

One of his significant contributions was establishing the cabinet, initially consisting of Thomas Jefferson as Secretary of State, Alexander Hamilton as Secretary of the Treasury, and Henry Knox as Secretary of War.

The creation of a Bill of Rights became a priority for the new American government in response to concerns raised by antifederalists regarding individual rights.

James Madison, a key figure in this process, drafted these amendments and guided them through Congress.

In 1791, the first ten amendments, known as the Bill of Rights, were ratified, safeguarding essential American principles and individual liberties, including freedom of religion, speech, and the press, the right to bear arms, trial by jury, and the right to assemble and petition the government.

Additionally, these amendments prohibited cruel and unusual punishments and government seizures of private property.

The Ninth Amendment clarified that listing specific rights did not negate others retained by the people, while the Tenth Amendment reserved unenumerated rights to the states or the people.

The first congresss also passed the Judiciary Act of 1789, organizing the Supreme Court with a chief Justice and five associates (would later be expanded to eight associates), also establishing district/circuit courts, and the office of attorney general. John Jay became the first chief justice.

Alexander Hamilton, as Treasury Secretary, played a central role in the early American government.

Hamilton sought to implement fiscal policies that favored wealthier groups in the belief that their support would secure government funding and political backing.

He aimed to strengthen the national credit and proposed "funding at par," which involved (very expensively) paying off the entire national debt at face value, including accumulated interest, to restore confidence in government.

Concurrently, Hamilton advocated for the federal government to assume state debts, a process called assumption, totaling about $21.5 million, as a means to strengthen the central government's ties to wealthy creditors and thereby enhance its political power.

States with lots of debt (like Massachusetts) liked this idea, at the opposition of states with few debts (mostly Virginia). Virginia eventually agreed to support assumption in exchange for the location of the federal capital - the District of Columbia, on the Potomac River in 1790.

Alexander Hamilton's financial policies during the early years of the United States led to a significant increase in the national debt, which swelled to $75 million.

He believed that a well-managed national debt could be a national blessing because it would create a vested interest among creditors in the government's success.

To manage this debt and support government operations, Hamilton implemented measures like customs duties, which relied on a robust foreign trade.

He also secured an excise tax on whiskey in 1791 to generate additional internal revenue, mainly affecting distillers in the backcountry regions.

Alexander Hamilton proposed the creation of the Bank of the United States as a cornerstone of his financial plan, as a powerful institution where the government would hold a significant stake and deposit surplus funds, thus providing economic stability and a national currency.

However, a constitutional debate arose, with Thomas Jefferson arguing that the bank had no specific authorization in the Constitution and that powers not explicitly granted were reserved for the states (tenth amendment).

In contrast, Hamilton believed in "loose construction," asserting that implied powers could be derived from the Constitution's necessary and proper clause, ultimately leading to the establishment of the bank (BUS) in 1791.

However, the constitutionality debate would continue, even until today. Federalists (Hamilton) believed that the federal government could do anything that was not explicitly banned in the constitution, while AntiFederalists (Jefferson) believed that the federal government could only do what was explicitly allowed.

The Whiskey Rebellion of 1794 was a significant challenge to the newly formed United States government.

Triggered by Alexander Hamilton's excise tax on whiskey, it was met with fierce resistance from frontier settlers in southwestern Pennsylvania who saw the tax as burdensome.

These rebels, known as the "Whiskey Boys," engaged in acts of defiance such as erecting whiskey poles and tarring and feathering revenue officers.

In response, President George Washington, supported by Hamilton, mustered a militia of around thirteen thousand troops to suppress the rebellion.

This episode, while resulting in few casualties, helped solidify the authority of the federal government but also drew criticism for its use of military force against a relatively minor rebellion.

Hamilton's fiscal policies, such as funding, assumption, the excise tax, and the national bank, improved the government's credit rating and allowed it to borrow funds on favorable terms.

However, these policies also encroached on states' rights and fueled opposition to the growing power of the federal government (antifederalists).

This opposition eventually evolved into a political rivalry between Alexander Hamilton and Thomas Jefferson, laying the groundwork for the emergence of the two-party system in the United States.

Despite initial reservations about political parties (most notably from George Washington's farewell address), they have become integral to American democracy, providing a means for expressing differing political views and serving as a check on government authority.

The French Revolution initially enjoyed support in the United States due to its ideals of liberty and republicanism, particularly among Democratic-Republicans (Jefferson was a Francophile).

However, the Reign of Terror and the growing violence in France diminished American sympathy for the revolution.

When war erupted in Europe, involving France and Britain, it complicated matters for the U.S., as American trade was closely tied to both nations.

Debates over how to handle these foreign entanglements and safeguard American interests contributed to the polarization of American politics, leading to the emergence of Federalist (anti-France) and Democratic-Republican (pro-France) factions.

In 1793, despite pressure from some Democratic-Republicans to honor the Franco-American alliance and support France in its conflict with Britain, President George Washington, backed by Alexander Hamilton, opted for a policy of neutrality.

Washington's rationale was that the young United States needed time to grow in strength and population before involving itself in European conflicts.

His Neutrality Proclamation declared official American impartiality in the European war, signaling the birth of a spreading American isolationist tradition.

The proclamation faced controversy, especially from pro-French Jeffersonians who resented its unilateral announcement and from the impulsive French envoy Edmond Genêt, whose activities challenged American neutrality.

Ultimately, American neutrality favored France's interests, as it allowed the United States to continue supplying foodstuffs to the French West Indies, which desperately needed them.

In the 1790s, Britain's refusal to surrender northern frontier posts on U.S. soil, contrary to the 1783 peace treaty, strained relations with the United States and tested Washington's neutrality.

The British aimed to protect their fur trade and create an Indian buffer state to contain American expansion.

This period also saw conflicts with Native American groups, including the Miami Confederacy, as they beat the American Army once but were routed on the second try. With the Treaty of Greenville (1795) they surrendered their claims to much of the Old Northwest.

On the sea, the British Royal Navy's aggressive actions against American ships in the West Indies -- especially impressment of sailors -- prompted calls for military action or embargoes, with Federalists opposing such measures to protect their economic interests with Britain.

President Washington, in an attempt to prevent war, sent Chief Justice John Jay to negotiate with Britain in 1794.

Jay faced difficulties and undermined bargaining positions, as Hamilton secretly shared American strategy with the British to avoid war.

The resulting Jay's Treaty secured limited concessions, but it failed to address future maritime issues or arms supply to Native Americans.

This unpopular treaty fueled the rise of the Democratic-Republican party led by Thomas Jefferson, and its concessions angered many, especially in the South.

Washington's Farewell Address in 1796 emphasized avoiding permanent alliances and political parties, while leaving behind a legacy of a strong central government and a nation avoiding foreign conflicts.

After George Washington's presidency, the Federalist party turned to John Adams as its candidate for president in 1796, as the better-known Federalist Alexander Hamilton was too unpopular due to his financial policies.

The Democratic-Republicans rallied behind Thomas Jefferson.

The campaign was marked by intense political passions and name-calling.

Adams narrowly won with 71 electoral votes to Jefferson's 68, becoming the second president, while Jefferson became vice president.

Adams was a stern and principled figure, but he faced challenges, including inheriting a feud with France, a cabinet divided by factionalism, and the unenviable task of following Washington's footsteps.

The controversial Jay's Treaty infuriated the French, who saw it as a step toward an alliance between the United States and Britain.

In retaliation, French warships began seizing American merchant vessels, capturing about three hundred by mid-1797. This was known as the Quasi War.

President Adams, in line with Washington's policy of avoiding war, attempted negotiations with France and appointed a diplomatic commission.

However, when the American envoys reached Paris in 1797, they were confronted with exorbitant demands by French intermediaries, referred to as X, Y, and Z, including a large loan and a hefty bribe just for the privilege of talking to Talleyrand, the French foreign minister. This would become known as the XYZ Affair

The Americans were unwilling to pay bribes just to talk to the foreign minister, and negotiations failed. Americans were incensed and war hysteria began to sweep through the United States, leading to a naval conflict in the West Indies.

President Adams, amidst rising tensions with France, chose a path of peace over war.

Recognizing that war would be detrimental to the still relatively weak nation, he sought negotiations with France through a new minister.

This decision was met with opposition from the war-hawk faction led by Hamilton but gained support from public opinion.

Eventually, negotiations led to the Convention of 1800, ending the nation's military alliance with France, ending the Quasi War (in the West Indies), and keeping the US out of a costly war..

The Federalist party, taking advantage of anti-French sentiments, enacted a series of laws in 1798 to suppress their Jeffersonian rivals.

These included stricter residency requirements for immigrants seeking citizenship (because most poor immigrants were Anti-Federalists), the empowerment of the president to deport or imprison foreigners during peace or war, and the notorious Sedition Act.

The Sedition Act curtailed freedom of speech and the press by punishing those who criticized the government or its officials.

While many Jeffersonian editors were prosecuted and convicted under the Sedition Act, it also garnered popular support, leading to a significant Federalist victory in the congressional elections of 1798–1799.

The era was marked by a surge in equality, with property requirements for voting reduced, titles (Mr. and Mrs.) becoming more accessible, and trade organizations for workers emerging. However much of this equality only extended to White Males.

Separation of church and state advanced, culminating in the Virginia Statute for Religious Freedom.

While the Revolutionary sentiments sparked anti-slavery efforts, complete abolition faltered as national unity was prioritized.

Women's roles evolved under the concept of "civic virtue," with the idea of "republican motherhood" arising, emphasizing women's role in nurturing virtuous citizens through education and moral guidance.