Chapter 3

Little did the German friar Martin Luther suspect, when he nailed his protests against Catholic doctrines to the door of Wittenberg’s cathedral in 1517, that he was shaping the destiny of a yet unknown nation.

Denouncing the authority of priests and popes, Luther declared that the Bible alone was the source of God’s word. He ignited a fire of religious reform (the “Protestant Reformation”) that spread across Europe for more than a century, dividing peoples and kindling the spiritual fervor of millions, some of whom helped to found America.

The reforming flame burned especially brightly in the bosom of John Calvin of Geneva. Calvinism became the dominant theological credo not only of the New England Puritans but also of other American settlers, including the Scottish Presbyterians, French Huguenots, and communicants of the Dutch Reformed Church.

Calvin spelled out his basic doctrine in a learned Latin tome of 1536, entitled Institutes of the Christian Religion. God, Calvin argued, was all-powerful and all-good, while humans, due to the corrupting effect of original sin, were weak and wicked.

Calvinism taught the concept of "predestination," where some souls - the elect - were destined for eternal bliss and others for eternal torment since the first moment of creation. Gnawing doubts about their eternal fate plagued Calvinists, who constantly sought signs of "conversion" or the receipt of God's saving grace.

These doctrines swept into England just as King Henry VIII was breaking his ties with the Roman Catholic Church in the 1530s. Many English religious reformers, known as Puritans, were inspired to undertake a total purification of English Christianity. The most devout Puritans believed that only "visible saints" should be admitted to church membership and sought to break away entirely from the Church of England.

King James I, head of both the state and the church in England from 1603 to 1625, threatened to harass the Separatists, a tiny group of dedicated Puritans who wanted to break away from the Church of England, fearing that they might defy him as their spiritual leader and, eventually, as their political leader.

The English Separatists, inspired by Martin Luther's protests and John Calvin's ideas, ignited the "Protestant Reformation" in Europe.

Seeking religious freedom, the Pilgrims, a group of Separatists, arrived at Plymouth in 1620, facing a challenging first winter but eventually establishing a successful colony in America.

Before disembarking, they signed the Mayflower Compact, a significant agreement that set a precedent for self-government in the New World.

Led by influential figures like William Bradford, the Pilgrims' colony thrived economically through fur, fish, and lumber trades.

Their pursuit of religious liberty and contributions to early self-governance shaped the destiny of America.

The Pilgrims were extreme Puritans seeking religious freedom in America, while other more moderate Puritans aimed to reform the Church of England from within.

In 1629, non-Separatist Puritans obtained a royal charter to form the Massachusetts Bay Company, establishing a significant settlement in Massachusetts with Boston as its center.

During the "Great Migration" of the 1630s, around 20,000 Puritans came to Massachusetts, attracted by the shared sense of purpose to build a holy society as a model for humanity.

Led by Governor John Winthrop, the colony prospered through fur trading, fishing, and shipbuilding, becoming the largest and most influential of the New England outposts.

Massachusetts Bay Colony served as a beacon of religious hope and covenant with God, leaving a lasting impact on the region and shaping the future of America.

The Massachusetts Bay Colony extended the franchise to adult males who belonged to the Puritan congregations, though unchurched men and women remained voteless.

While the government was liberal for its time, it wasn't a democracy, as only Puritans, the "visible saints," were eligible as freemen.

Religious leaders held significant influence, influencing church membership, and preaching was limited to avoid an unholy union of religious and government power.

Despite their spiritual intensity, Puritans embraced worldly pursuits and enjoyed simple pleasures, but also passed laws to repress certain instincts in line with the "Protestant ethic."

Anne Hutchinson, a strong-willed and intelligent woman, challenged Puritan beliefs in the Massachusetts Bay Colony. She held religious meetings in her home, preaching controversial ideas that questioned the necessity of obeying religious and civil laws (antinomianism).

Hutchinson's views threatened the authority of the clergy and the social order, leading to her trial and eventual banishment in 1638.

Similarly, Roger Williams, a young minister, was also banished for radical ideas and criticisms against the colony's charter.

Roger Williams was exiled from the Massachusetts Bay Colony primarily due to his radical religious beliefs and his outspoken criticism of the Puritan leaders. He challenged the authority of the Puritan church, advocated for a complete break from the Church of England, and questioned the colony's right to confiscate land from Native Americans without proper compensation. His views were considered dangerous and heretical by the Puritan authorities, leading to his banishment in 1635.

The colony wanted him deported to England to stop him from setting up a rival colony, but he got away from them, getting to the area around Rhode Island with the help of some friendly Indians and founding Rhode Island as a haven for religious freedom.

Aided by friendly Indians, Roger Williams fled to the Rhode Island area in 1636, where he built a Baptist church, likely the first in America. He established complete religious freedom, allowing Jews, Catholics, and all to worship without interference, and sheltered abused Quakers despite their differing views.

Rhode Island became a haven for outcasts and exiles, enjoying manhood suffrage from the beginning and promoting freedom of opportunity. The state's independent and individualistic nature earned it the nickname "the traditional home of the otherwise minded," and it later received a charter from Parliament in 1644.

The Connecticut River Valley attracted Dutch and English settlers, and Hartford was founded in 1635. Led by Reverend Thomas Hooker, Boston Puritans established the Hartford settlement in 1636. In 1639, the settlers drafted the Fundamental Orders, a pioneering constitution that shaped the regime democratically controlled by "substantial" citizens and influenced Connecticut's colonial charter and state constitution.

New Haven, another thriving settlement, was founded in 1638 by Puritans seeking a closer church-government alliance. However, they fell out of favor with Charles II for sheltering judges who condemned Charles I, and in 1662, the crown granted a charter merging New Haven with the more democratic settlements in the Connecticut Valley.

In the twelve years between 1629 and 1642, around twenty thousand Puritans came to the Massachusetts Bay Colony, fleeing economic depression and religious repression under Charles I. These settlers arrived in family groups, and some communities re-created the specialized economies of their English hometowns.

Maine had been active with fishermen and fur traders for years before the founding of Plymouth, and it became part of Massachusetts Bay after a formal purchase in 1677. New Hampshire emerged from fishing and trading activities along its coast, absorbed by Massachusetts in 1641 and later separated as a royal colony in 1679.

The expansion of English settlements in New England brought inevitable clashes with the weakened indigenous tribes.

Initially, friendly relations were established with the Wampanoag Indians, but as more settlers arrived, conflicts arose.

The Pequot War in 1637 resulted in the near annihilation of the Pequot tribe.

The Puritans made limited efforts to convert the remaining Indians to Christianity.

However, King Philip's War in 1675, led by Metacom (King Philip), united several tribes in resistance, inflicting a significant defeat on the New England Indians and slowing further westward settlement for some time.

In 1643, four colonies formed the New England Confederation, primarily for defense against common foes and to address intercolonial issues.

The confederation was an exclusive Puritan club, consisting of Massachusetts Bay, Plymouth, New Haven, and the scattered valley settlements.

After the restoration of Charles II to the English throne in 1660, the crown sought greater control over the colonies, leading to conflicts with Massachusetts and the eventual revocation of its charter in 1684.

In 1686, the Dominion of New England, imposed by royal authority, aimed to promote efficiency in enforcing the Navigation Laws and bolster colonial defense.

Sir Edmund Andros, the dominion's leader, ruled autocratically, curbing town meetings, restricting courts and the press, and revoking land titles, leading to widespread discontent and near-revolt.

The Glorious Revolution in England in 1688–1689 led to the collapse of the Dominion of New England, but Massachusetts became a royal colony with a new charter and governor, and the privilege of voting was extended to qualified male property holders.

England's tighter administrative control over the colonies through officials further strained the relationship between the colonists and the crown.

In the late sixteenth century, the Netherlands revolted against Catholic Spain and gained their independence with the help of Protestant England. The Dutch then turned their attention overseas and became a major commercial and naval power in the seventeenth century. They challenged England in three Anglo-Dutch naval wars, each side dealing significant blows.

The Dutch Republic also became a prominent colonial power, with its greatest activity in the East Indies. The Dutch East India Company, a powerful entity, maintained an extensive and profitable empire for over three hundred years. Seeking further wealth, the company employed English explorer Henry Hudson, who explored the Hudson River area in present-day New York and filed a Dutch claim to the region.

The Dutch West India Company, though less potent than its East India counterpart, had profitable ventures in the Caribbean and captured Spanish treasure ships. New Netherland, now the Hudson River area, was established by the Dutch West India Company for fur trade, with New Amsterdam as its main settlement. The Dutch colony was initially run as a company town, with little enthusiasm for religious toleration or democratic practices. However, it attracted a diverse and cosmopolitan population over time, becoming a haven for refugees and immigrants from various backgrounds.

Vexations plagued the Dutch company-colony from its inception, with incompetent directors-general and shareholders prioritizing dividends over the colony's welfare.

Local Indians retaliated with brutal massacres, and New England was hostile towards its Dutch neighbor, ousting Hollanders from their land.

The Swedes also intruded on Dutch territory, establishing New Sweden on the Delaware River.

In 1655, the Dutch under Peter Stuyvesant's leadership defeated the Swedes, absorbing their colony into New Netherland, leaving a lasting impact on Delaware's heritage.

New Netherland represented only a secondary commercial interest to the Dutch and was overshadowed by the more vigorous English colonies to the north.

New England immigrants, comprising about half of New Netherland's population, threatened to seize control from within, prompting the English to see the Dutch as intruders.

In 1664, the English fleet captured New Amsterdam, which was then renamed New York in honor of the Duke of York.

The conquered Dutch province retained illiberal features, with an autocratic spirit and influential landowning families wielding disproportionate power.

The Dutch left their mark on the middle colonies, evident in place names, architecture, and social customs such as Easter eggs, Santa Claus, and bowling.

During the mid-1600s, a group of dissenters known as Quakers emerged in England, known for their deep religious convictions and refusal to support the established Church of England.

Quakers congregated in simple meetinghouses, rejected hierarchical structures, and promoted passive resistance, opposing war and military service.

William Penn, a devoted Quaker, sought to establish an asylum for his people and an experiment in government, leading to the founding of Pennsylvania in 1681 with a liberal land policy that attracted many immigrants.

William Penn formally launched his colony of Pennsylvania in 1681, which attracted various ethnic groups and religious misfits seeking economic opportunity, civil liberty, and religious freedom.

Penn planned Philadelphia carefully, and his fair treatment of Native Americans initially fostered amicable relations, but an influx of non-Quaker European immigrants strained the policy.

Pennsylvania's proprietary regime was unusually liberal, guaranteeing freedom of worship, a representative assembly, and no tax-supported state church. However, Penn's close ties to the deposed Catholic king and disagreements with colonists overshadowed his achievements.

Next door, small Quaker settlements thrived in New Jersey and Delaware, contributing to the region's diverse and progressive atmosphere.

The middle colonies, including New York, New Jersey, Delaware, and Pennsylvania, shared common characteristics such as fertile soil and a broad expanse of land, earning the latter three the nickname "bread colonies" due to their grain exports.

Rivers like the Susquehanna, Delaware, and Hudson played a crucial role in tapping the fur trade and promoting commerce and seaports like New York and Philadelphia.

The middle colonies were a mix between New England and the Southern plantations, with a more diverse population, religious toleration, democratic control, and a considerable amount of economic and social democracy.

Notably, Benjamin Franklin, a representative American figure, was a product of the middle colonies, particularly Philadelphia, which was thriving as the colonies grew in population and improved transportation and communication.